according to langer what was the reason for the new imperialism

Colonial expansion in late 19th and early 20th centuries

In historical contexts, New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan during the late 19th and early on 20th centuries.^[ane] The flow featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, expanding their territory through conquest, and exploiting the resources of the subjugated countries. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers (and Japan) individually conquered well-nigh all of Africa and parts of Asia. The new moving ridge of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic want for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission" ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed Globe War Ii.

The qualifier "new" is used to differentiate modern imperialism from earlier majestic activity, such every bit the formation of ancient empires and the then-called first wave of European colonization.^[one] ^[ii]

Rise [edit]

The American Revolution (1775–83) and the collapse of the Castilian Empire in Latin America in the 1820s ended the get-go era of European imperialism. Peculiarly in United kingdom these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, the doctrine of economical competition for finite wealth which had supported earlier purple expansion. In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers grew, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to trade more freely. Thus, Great britain began to adopt the concept of costless trade.^[three]

The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey (1819). The congress was actually a series of face-to-confront meetings between colonial powers. Information technology served to divide and reappropriate imperial holdings.

During this menstruum, between the 1815 Congress of Vienna after the defeat of Napoleonic French republic and Imperial Germany'south victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Great Britain reaped the benefits of beingness Europe'due south dominant armed services and economic ability. Every bit the "workshop of the world", U.k. could produce finished goods so efficiently that they could normally undersell comparable, locally manufactured appurtenances in foreign markets, supplying a large share of the manufactured goods consumed by such nations as the German states, French republic, Belgium, and the United States.^[4] ^{[ folio needed ]}

The erosion of British hegemony after the Franco-Prussian War, in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia soundly defeated the 2d French Empire, was occasioned by changes in the European and world economies and in the continental remainder of power following the breakup of the Concert of Europe, established past the Congress of Vienna. The establishment of nation-states in Frg and Italian republic resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal diplomacy at the heart of Europe to Britain'south advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an extremely unstable peace. France's decision to recover Alsace-Lorraine, annexed by Germany equally a issue of the Franco-Prussian War, and Germany's mounting imperialist ambitions would keep the two nations constantly poised for disharmonize.^[5]

This competition was sharpened past the Long Depression of 1873–1896, a prolonged period of cost deflation punctuated by severe business organization downturns, which put pressure on governments to promote home manufacture, leading to the widespread abandonment of gratuitous trade amongst Europe'southward powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881).^[six] ^[7]

Berlin Briefing [edit]

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 sought to destroy the competition betwixt the powers by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of a territory claim, specifically in Africa. The imposition of direct rule in terms of "effective occupation" necessitated routine recourse to armed strength against indigenous states and peoples. Uprisings against majestic dominion were put downwards ruthlessly, most brutally in the Herero Wars in German S-West Africa from 1904 to 1907 and the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa from 1905 to 1907. One of the goals of the conference was to achieve agreements over trade, navigation, and boundaries of Central Africa. However, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African.

The primary dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great U.k. and Portugal. They remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the briefing, Africa was divided into fifty different colonies. The attendants established who was in command of each of these newly divided colonies. They as well planned, noncommittally, to end the slave trade in Africa.

United kingdom during the era [edit]

In United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, the historic period of new imperialism marked a time for pregnant economic changes.^[8] Because the country was the beginning to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century.^[9] Past the stop of the nineteenth century, notwithstanding, other countries, importantly Germany and the The states, began to challenge Britain's technological and economic power.^[ix] Subsequently several decades of monopoly, the land was contesting to maintain a dominant economical position while other powers became more involved in international markets. In 1870, U.k. contained 31.8% of the earth'due south manufacturing capacity while the United States independent 23.iii% and Germany contained 13.2%.^[10] By 1910, Britain's manufacturing capacity had dropped to fourteen.7%, while that of the United States had risen to 35.3% and that of Germany to 15.9%.^[10] As countries similar Germany and America became more economically successful, they began to become more involved with imperialism, resulting in the British struggling to maintain the book of British trade and investment overseas.^[10]

Britain further faced strained international relations with three expansionist powers (Japan, Germany, and Italy) during the early on twentieth century. Earlier 1939, these three powers never directly threatened Uk itself, but the dangers to the Empire were clear.^[xi] By the 1930s, Britain was worried that Japan would threaten its holdings in the Far Due east as well equally territories in Republic of india, Australia and New Zealand.^[11] Italy held an interest in North Africa, which threatened British Egypt, and German dominance of the European continent held some danger for Britain's security.^[11] Britain worried that the expansionist powers would cause the breakdown of international stability; as such, British strange policy attempted to protect the stability in a speedily changing world.^[11] With its stability and holdings threatened, United kingdom decided to adopt a policy of concession rather than resistance, a policy that became known as appeasement.^[eleven]

In Britain, the era of new imperialism affected public attitudes toward the idea of imperialism itself. Most of the public believed that if imperialism was going to exist, information technology was best if Britain was the driving forcefulness behind it.^[12] The same people farther thought that British imperialism was a force for good in the world.^[12] In 1940, the Fabian Colonial Research Bureau argued that Africa could be developed both economically and socially, only until this development could happen, Africa was all-time off remaining with the British Empire. Rudyard Kipling's 1891 verse form, "The English Flag," contains the stanza:

Winds of the World, give reply! They are whimpering to and fro--
And what should they know of England who only England know?--
The poor little street-bred people that vapour and smoke and brag,
They are lifting their heads in the stillness to yelp at the English Flag!^[thirteen]

These lines show Kipling's belief that the British who actively took part in imperialism knew more most British national identity than the ones whose unabridged lives were spent solely in the regal city.^[12] While there were pockets of anti-imperialist opposition in Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, resistance to imperialism was nigh nonexistent in the country every bit a whole.^[12] In many ways, this new grade of imperialism formed a role of the British identity until the stop of the era of new imperialism with the Second Globe State of war.^[12]

[edit]

New Imperialism gave ascension to new social views of colonialism. Rudyard Kipling, for instance, urged the United States to "Take up the White Man's burden" of bringing European civilization to the other peoples of the earth, regardless of whether these "other peoples" wanted this civilization or not. This part of The White Man'due south Burden exemplifies Britain's perceived mental attitude towards the colonization of other countries:

Take up the White Man'southward burden—
In patience to abide,
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech communication and uncomplicated,
An hundred times made plain
To seek another's profit,
And piece of work another's gain.

While Social Darwinism became popular throughout Western Europe and the Usa, the paternalistic French and Portuguese "civilizing mission" (in French: mission civilisatrice ; in Portuguese: Missão civilizadora ) appealed to many European statesmen both in and outside France. Despite apparent benevolence existing in the notion of the "White Man's Burden", the unintended consequences of imperialism might have greatly outweighed the potential benefits. Governments became increasingly paternalistic at home and neglected the individual liberties of their citizens. Military spending expanded, usually leading to an "majestic overreach", and imperialism created clients of ruling elites abroad that were barbarous and decadent, consolidating power through imperial rents and impeding social change and economic development that ran against their ambitions. Furthermore, "nation building" ofttimes created cultural sentiments of racism and xenophobia.^[fourteen]

Many of Europe's major elites too constitute advantages in formal, overseas expansion: large fiscal and industrial monopolies wanted royal support to protect their overseas investments confronting competition and domestic political tensions abroad, bureaucrats sought government offices, military officers desired promotion, and the traditional but waning landed gentries sought increased profits for their investments, formal titles, and high function. Such special interests have perpetuated empire building throughout history.^[14]

Observing the rising of merchandise unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass order both in Europe and afterwards in North America, elites sought to use imperial jingoism to co-opt the support of part of the industrial working form. The new mass media promoted jingoism in the Spanish–American War (1898), the Second Boer War (1899–1902), and the Boxer Rebellion (1900). The left-wing German language historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler has defined social imperialism as "the diversions outwards of internal tensions and forces of change in order to preserve the social and political status quo", and every bit a "defensive ideology" to counter the "disruptive effects of industrialization on the social and economical structure of Deutschland".^[15] In Wehler'south stance, social imperialism was a device that allowed the German government to distract public attention from domestic problems and preserve the existing social and political social club. The dominant elites used social imperialism as the mucilage to hold together a fractured society and to maintain popular support for the social condition quo. According to Wehler, German colonial policy in the 1880s was the commencement example of social imperialism in action, and was followed up by the 1897 Tirpitz Plan for expanding the German language Navy. In this point of view, groups such as the Colonial Order and the Navy League are seen every bit instruments for the regime to mobilize public support. The demands for annexing about of Europe and Africa in World War I are seen by Wehler every bit the pinnacle of social imperialism.^[15]

The notion of rule over strange lands commanded widespread acceptance amid metropolitan populations, even among those who associated purple colonization with oppression and exploitation. For example, the 1904 Congress of the Socialist International concluded that the colonial peoples should be taken in mitt past hereafter European socialist governments and led by them into eventual independence.^{[ citation needed ]}

South asia [edit]

India [edit]

In the 17th century, the British businessmen arrived in India and, later taking a small portion of state, formed the Eastward India Company. The British East Bharat Company annexed most of the subcontinent of Bharat, starting with Bengal in 1757 and ending with Punjab in 1849. Many princely states remained independent. This was aided by a ability vacuum formed by the collapse of the Mughal Empire in Bharat and the expiry of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and increased British forces in India because of colonial conflicts with France. The invention of clipper ships in the early 1800s cut the trip to Bharat from Europe in half from half dozen months to iii months; the British besides laid cables on the floor of the body of water allowing telegrams to be sent from India and China. In 1818, the British controlled about of the Indian subcontinent and began imposing their ideas and ways on its residents, including different succession laws that allowed the British to take over a state with no successor and gain its country and armies, new taxes, and monopolistic control of industry. The British also collaborated with Indian officials to increase their influence in the region.

Some Hindu and Muslim Sepoys rebelled in 1857, resulting in the Indian Mutiny. After this defection was suppressed past the British, Bharat came under the direct control of the British crown. After the British had gained more command over India, they began irresolute effectually the financial state of India. Previously, Europe had to pay for Indian textiles and spices in bullion; with political control, Uk directed farmers to abound cash crops for the company for exports to Europe while India became a market for textiles from U.k.. In addition, the British nerveless huge revenues from state rent and taxes on its acquired monopoly on salt production. Indian weavers were replaced by new spinning and weaving machines and Indian food crops were replaced by cash crops like cotton and tea.

The British also began connecting Indian cities by railroad and telegraph to make travel and communication easier too every bit building an irrigation arrangement for increasing farm production. When Western didactics was introduced in India, Indians were quite influenced by it, just the inequalities between the British ideals of governance and their treatment of Indians became clear.^{[ clarification needed ]} In response to this discriminatory treatment, a group of educated Indians established the Indian National Congress, demanding equal treatment and cocky-governance.

John Robert Seeley, a Cambridge Professor of History, said, "Our acquisition of India was made blindly. Nothing groovy that has ever been washed past Englishmen was washed so unintentionally or accidentally equally the conquest of India". According to him, the political command of Bharat was not a conquest in the usual sense because it was not an human activity of a state.^{[ citation needed ]}

The new administrative arrangement, crowned with Queen Victoria's proclamation equally Empress of India in 1876, finer replaced the rule of a monopolistic enterprise with that of a trained civil service headed by graduates of Uk'southward top universities. The assistants retained and increased the monopolies held by the visitor. The India Table salt Human activity of 1882 included regulations enforcing a government monopoly on the drove and manufacture of table salt; in 1923 a bill was passed doubling the salt taxation.^[16]

Southeast Asia [edit]

After taking command of much of India, the British expanded farther into Burma, Malaya, Singapore and Borneo, with these colonies condign further sources of trade and raw materials for British goods. The United States laid claim to the Philippines, and later on the Philippine–American War, took control of the country as one of its overseas possessions.

Indonesia [edit]

Formal colonization of the Dutch East Indies (at present Indonesia) commenced at the dawn of the 19th century when the Dutch state took possession of all Dutch E India Visitor (VOC) assets. Before that time the VOC merchants were in principle just another trading ability amid many, establishing trading posts and settlements (colonies) in strategic places around the archipelago. The Dutch gradually extended their sovereignty over almost of the islands in the East Indies. Dutch expansion paused for several years during an interregnum of British rule between 1806 and 1816, when the Dutch Republic was occupied by the French forces of Napoleon. The Dutch government-in-exile in England ceded rule of all its colonies to Not bad United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. However, Jan Willem Janssens, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies at the time, fought the British earlier surrendering the colony; he was somewhen replaced by Stamford Raffles.^[17]

The Dutch East Indies became the prize possession of the Dutch Empire. It was non the typical settler colony founded through massive emigration from the mother countries (such as the USA or Commonwealth of australia) and hardly involved displacement of the indigenous islanders, with a notable and dramatic exception in the isle of Banda during the VOC era.^[18] Neither was it a plantation colony congenital on the import of slaves (such as Haiti or Jamaica) or a pure merchandise post colony (such as Singapore or Macau). Information technology was more of an expansion of the existing concatenation of VOC trading posts. Instead of mass emigration from the homeland, the sizeable indigenous populations were controlled through constructive political manipulation supported by armed services forcefulness. The servitude of the ethnic masses was enabled through a structure of indirect governance, keeping existing ethnic rulers in identify. This strategy was already established past the VOC, which independently acted as a semi-sovereign state inside the Dutch state, using the Indo Eurasian population as an intermediary buffer.^[19]

In 1869 British anthropologist Alfred Russel Wallace described the colonial governing construction in his book "The Malay Archipelago":^[20]

"The manner of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole serial of native rulers, from the hamlet chief upward to princes, who, under the proper name of Regents, are the heads of districts almost the size of a small English canton. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident, or Assistant Resident, who is considered to be his "elder brother," and whose "orders" take the course of "recommendations," which are, all the same, implicitly obeyed. Along with each Banana, Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspector of all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every village in the district, examines the proceedings of the native courts, hears complaints against the caput-men or other native chiefs, and superintends the Government plantations."

Indochina [edit]

France annexed all of Vietnam and Kingdom of cambodia in the 1880s; in the following decade, French republic completed its Indochinese empire with the looting of Laos, leaving the kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) with an uneasy independence as a neutral buffer between British and French-ruled lands.

East asia [edit]

China [edit]

In 1839, Red china found itself fighting the Commencement Opium War with Great britain after the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei, Lin Zexu, seized the illegally traded opium. China was defeated, and in 1842 agreed to the provisions of the Treaty of Nanking. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and sure ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the 2d Opium State of war broke out; the Chinese were once more defeated and forced to the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin and the 1860 Convention of Peking. The treaty opened new ports to trade and immune foreigners to travel in the interior. Missionaries gained the right to propagate Christianity, another means of Western penetration. The United States and Russia obtained the aforementioned prerogatives in carve up treaties.

Towards the end of the 19th century, Mainland china appeared on the mode to territorial dismemberment and economical vassalage, the fate of India's rulers that had played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties acquired long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own land), customs regulation, and the right to station strange warships in Chinese waters.

In 1904, the British invaded Lhasa, a pre-emptive strike against Russian intrigues and surreptitious meetings between the 13th Dalai Lama's envoy and Tsar Nicholas Ii. The Dalai Lama fled into exile to China and Mongolia. The British were greatly concerned at the prospect of a Russian invasion of the Crown colony of India, though Russia – badly defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War and weakened past internal rebellion – could not realistically afford a military machine conflict confronting Britain. China nether the Qing dynasty, notwithstanding, was another affair.^[21]

Natural disasters, famine and internal rebellions had enfeebled Mainland china in the tardily Qing. In the late 19th century, Nippon and the Great Powers hands carved out merchandise and territorial concessions. These were humiliating submissions for the in one case-powerful China. Notwithstanding, the central lesson of the war with Japan was not lost on the Russian General Staff: an Asian land using Western technology and industrial production methods could defeat a great European power.^[22] Jane East. Elliott criticized the allegation that Mainland china refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies every bit simplistic, noting that Cathay embarked on a massive armed forces modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (ninety% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions connected near their daily lives, uninterrupted and without whatsoever feeling of "humiliation".^[23]

The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.

During the Ili crunch when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russian federation over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer Charles George Gordon was sent to Mainland china past Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war intermission out between Prc and Russia.^[24]

The Russians observed the Chinese edifice up their arsenal of modernistic weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany.^[25] In 1880 massive amounts of armed services equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to Prc from Antwerp as Prc purchased torpedoes, arms, and 260,260 modernistic rifles from Europe.^[26]

The Russian military observer D. V. Putiatia visited Red china in 1888 and constitute that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modernistic weapons like Krupp arms, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.^[27]

Compared to Russian controlled areas, more than benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought confronting the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in whatever conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that Red china would defeat Russia.^[28]

The Qing dynasty forced Russian federation to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the Treaty of Saint petersburg (1881), in what was widely seen by the west equally a diplomatic victory for the Qing.^[29] Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat.^[30] Mass media in the westward during this era portrayed China as a rising military machine power due to its modernization programs and every bit major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.^[31]

Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah condition inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, and the negative country of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return near of Ili to China.^[32]

Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China's nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at ocean. At the first of the Opium War, Red china had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the ocean; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to get. ... In the Arrow War (1856–threescore), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing every bit near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new only non exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Fundamental Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884–85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced Prc to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."^[33]

The British and Russian consuls schemed and plotted confronting each other at Kashgar.^[34]

In 1906, Tsar Nicholas II sent a hugger-mugger amanuensis to China to collect intelligence on the reform and modernization of the Qing dynasty. The task was given to Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, at the fourth dimension a colonel in the Russian ground forces, who travelled to Mainland china with French Sinologist Paul Pelliot. Mannerheim was disguised every bit an ethnographic collector, using a Finnish passport.^[22] Finland was, at the time, a Grand Duchy. For two years, Mannerheim proceeded through Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia to Beijing. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of Wutai Shan he even met the 13th Dalai Lama.^[35] However, while Mannerheim was in Cathay in 1907, Russia and Uk brokered the Anglo-Russian Understanding, ending the classical period of the Slap-up Game.

The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.^[36]

The rise of Japan as an imperial ability afterward the Meiji Restoration led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over regional suzerainty, war broke out between Prc and Japan, resulting in another humiliating defeat for the Chinese. Past the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, China was forced to recognize Korea's exit from the Imperial Chinese tributary system, leading to the announcement of the Korean Empire, and the island of Taiwan was ceded to Nihon.

In 1897, taking advantage of the murder of two missionaries, Germany demanded and was given a set of mining and railroad rights around Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong province. In 1898, Russia obtained access to Dairen and Port Arthur and the right to build a railroad beyond Manchuria, thereby achieving consummate domination over a large portion of northeast Prc. The U.k., France, and Japan also received a number of concessions later that twelvemonth.

The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "Boxers" (properly the social club of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked strange legations in Beijing. This Boxer Rebellion provoked a rare display of unity amongst the colonial powers, who formed the Eight-Nation Alliance. Troops landed at Tianjin and marched on the capital, which they took on 14 August; the foreign soldiers and then looted and occupied Beijing for several months. German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its burdensome defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese State of war of 1904–1905.

Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the Britain and the The states in 1943, strange political control of parts of People's republic of china just finally ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the minor Portuguese territory of Macau into the China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.

Mainland Chinese historians refer to this menses every bit the century of humiliation.

Central Asia [edit]

This department needs expansion. You can help past adding to it. (July 2012)

Persia at the beginning of the Slap-up Game in 1814

"The Great Game" (As well called the Tournament of Shadows (Russian: Турниры теней, Turniry Teney) in Russia) was the strategic, economic and political rivalry, emanating to disharmonize betwixt the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Key Asia at the expense of Afghanistan, Persia and the Fundamental Asian Khanates/Emirates. The classic Great Game period is generally regarded as running approximately from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, in which nations like Emirate of Bukhara fell. A less intensive phase followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, causing some trouble with Persia and Afghanistan until the mid 1920s.

In the post-Second World War postal service-colonial menstruum, the term has informally continued in its usage to draw the geopolitical machinations of the Great Powers and regional powers equally they vie for geopolitical ability as well as influence in the area, especially in Afghanistan and Islamic republic of iran/Persia.^[37] ^[38]

Africa [edit]

Prelude [edit]

French conquest of Algeria began in 1830.

Between 1850 and 1914, Uk brought almost 30% of Africa's population under its control, to fifteen% for France, 9% for Federal republic of germany, 7% for Belgium and 1% for Italy: Nigeria alone contributed 15 meg subjects to Britain, more than in the whole of French West Africa, or the entire German colonial empire. The only nations that were not under European control by 1914 were Republic of liberia and Ethiopia.^[39]

British colonies [edit]

U.k.'s formal occupation of Arab republic of egypt in 1882, triggered by concern over the Suez Culvert, contributed to a preoccupation over securing command of the Nile River, leading to the conquest of neighboring Sudan in 1896–1898, which in turn led to confrontation with a French war machine expedition at Fashoda in September 1898. In 1899, Britain set out to complete its takeover of the future Due south Africa, which it had begun in 1814 with the looting of the Greatcoat Colony, by invading the gold-rich Afrikaner republics of Transvaal and the neighboring Orangish Free State. The chartered British Southward Africa Company had already seized the land to the north, renamed Rhodesia after its caput, the Cape tycoon Cecil Rhodes.

British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, United kingdom'south Loftier Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" empire: linked by rail, the strategically of import Canal would be firmly connected to the mineral-rich Southward, though Belgian command of the Congo Complimentary State and German language command of German East Africa prevented such an outcome until the end of World State of war I, when Uk caused the latter territory.

United kingdom'southward quest for southern Africa and its diamonds led to social complications and fallouts that lasted for years. To work for their prosperous company, British businessmen hired both white and blackness South Africans. But when it came to jobs, the white S Africans received the higher paid and less dangerous ones, leaving the black South Africans to risk their lives in the mines for limited pay. This procedure of separating the two groups of S Africans, whites and blacks, was the beginning of segregation between the two that lasted until 1990.

Paradoxically, the United kingdom, a staunch abet of gratuitous merchandise, emerged in 1914 with not merely the largest overseas empire, thanks to its long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the conquest of Africa, reflecting its advantageous position at its inception.

Congo Free State [edit]

Until 1876, Belgium had no colonial presence in Africa. It was then that its king, Leopold II created the International African Society. Operating under the pretense of an international scientific and philanthropic association, it was actually a private holding company owned by Leopold.^[forty] Henry Morton Stanley was employed to explore and colonize the Congo River basin area of equatorial Africa in gild to capitalize on the plentiful resources such as ivory, safety, diamonds, and metals.^{[ citation needed ]} Up until this point, Africa was known as "the Night Continent" considering of the difficulties Europeans had with exploration.^[41] Over the next few years, Stanley overpowered and fabricated treaties with over 450 native tribes, acquiring him over 2,340,000 square kilometres (905,000 sq mi) of country, nearly 67 times the size of Belgium.^{[ citation needed ]}

Neither the Belgian government nor the Belgian people had any interest in imperialism at the time, and the land came to be personally owned by King Leopold II. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, he was allowed to accept state named the Congo Gratis State. The other European countries at the conference allowed this to happen on the conditions that he suppress the Eastward African slave trade, promote humanitarian policies, guarantee costless merchandise, and encourage missions to Christianize the people of the Congo. Yet, Leopold Ii's primary focus was to make a large profit on the natural resources, especially ivory and rubber. In social club to make this profit, he passed several cruel decrees that tin be considered to be genocide. He forced the natives to supply him with safe and ivory without any sort of payment in return. Their wives and children were held hostage until the workers returned with plenty safety or ivory to fill their quota, and if they could non, their family would be killed. When villages refused, they were burned downwards; the children of the village were murdered and the men had their hands cut off. These policies led to uprisings, but they were feeble compared to European armed services and technological might, and were consequently crushed. The forced labor was opposed in other ways: fleeing into the forests to seek refuge or setting the rubber forests on burn down, preventing the Europeans from harvesting the prophylactic.^{[ citation needed ]}

No population figures exist from before or later the period, but it is estimated that as many as ten million people died from violence, dearth and illness.^[42] However, some sources indicate to a total population of 16 meg people.^[43]

King Leopold Ii profited from the enterprise with a 700% profit ratio for the safe he took from Congo and exported.^{[ citation needed ]} He used propaganda to keep the other European nations at bay, for he broke almost all of the parts of the agreement he made at the Berlin Conference. For instance, he had some Congolese pygmies sing and dance at the 1897 World Fair in Belgium, showing how he was supposedly civilizing and educating the natives of the Congo. Under pregnant international pressure level, the Belgian authorities annexed the territory in 1908 and renamed information technology the Belgian Congo, removing it from the personal ability of the rex.^[40] Of all the colonies that were conquered during the wave of New Imperialism, the human rights abuses of the Congo Complimentary Land were considered the worst.^[44] ^[45] ^[46]

Oceania [edit]

France gained a leading position every bit an majestic power in the Pacific afterwards making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively.^[47] Tahiti was after annexed entirely into the French colonial empire in 1880, forth with the rest of the Society Islands.^[48]

The Us made several territorial gains during this menses, especially with the looting of Hawaii and acquisition of most of Spain'south colonial outposts post-obit the 1898 Spanish–American War,^[49] ^[50] as well as the partition of the Samoan Islands into American Samoa and German Samoa.^[51]

By 1900, near all islands in the Pacific Ocean were nether the control of Britain, France, the Usa, Germany, Nippon, Mexico, Republic of ecuador and Republic of chile.^[47]

Chilean expansion [edit]

Republic of chile'south interest in expanding into the islands of the Pacific Ocean dates to the presidency of José Joaquín Prieto (1831-1841) and the ideology of Diego Portales, who considered that Chile'south expansion into Polynesia was a natural consequence of its maritime destiny.^[52] ^[A] Notwithstanding, the first stage of the country's expansionism into the Pacific began but a decade subsequently, in 1851, when—in response to an American incursion into the Juan Fernández Islands—Republic of chile's government formally organized the islands into a subdelegation of Valparaíso.^[54] That same twelvemonth, Chile's economic interest in the Pacific were renewed after its merchant fleet briefly succeeded in creating an agronomical goods exchange market that connected the Californian port of San Francisco with Australia.^[55] Past 1861, Chile had established a lucrative enterprise beyond the Pacific, its national currency abundantly circulating throughout Polynesia and its merchants trading in the markets of Tahiti, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Shanghai; negotiations were also made with the Castilian Philippines, and altercations reportedly occurred between Chilean and American whalers in the Ocean of Japan. This period ended as a result of the Chilean merchant fleet's destruction by Spanish forces in 1866, during the Chincha Islands State of war.^[56]

Chile'south Polynesian aspirations would again be awakened in the aftermath of the country'due south decisive victory confronting Peru in the State of war of the Pacific, which left the Chilean fleet every bit the dominant maritime force in the Pacific coast of the Americas.^[52] Valparaíso had too become the virtually important port in the Pacific coast of South America, providing Chilean merchants with the chapters to find markets in the Pacific for its new mineral wealth acquired from the Atacama.^[57] During this period, the Chilean intellectual and pol Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (who served as senator in the National Congress from 1876 to 1885) was an influential voice in favor of Chilean expansionism into the Pacific—he considered that Espana's discoveries in the Pacific had been stolen by the British, and envisioned that Chile'south duty was to create an empire in the Pacific that would reach Asia.^[52] In the context of this imperialist fervor is that, in 1886, Captain Policarpo Toro of the Chilean Navy proposed to his superiors the annexation of Easter Island; a proposal which was supported past President José Manuel Balmaceda because of the island's apparent strategic location and economical value. Afterwards Toro transferred the rights to the island'southward sheep ranching operations from Tahiti-based businesses to the Chilean-based Williamson-Balfour Company in 1887, Easter Isle'south annexation process was culminated with the signing of the "Agreement of Wills" between Rapa Nui chieftains and Toro, in name of the Chilean government, in 1888.^[58] Past occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.^[59] ^: 53

Imperial rivalries [edit]

Map of the world in 1914, earlier the start of World War I

The extension of European command over Africa and Asia added a further dimension to the rivalry and common suspicion which characterized international diplomacy in the decades preceding World State of war I. France'south seizure of Tunisia in 1881 initiated xv years of tension with Italy, which had hoped to take the country, retaliating by allying with Federal republic of germany and waging a decade-long tariff war with France. U.k.'due south takeover of Arab republic of egypt a year later caused a marked cooling of its relations with French republic.

The most hit conflicts of the era were the Spanish–American War of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, each signaling the advent of a new royal bang-up ability; the Usa and Japan, respectively. The Fashoda incident of 1898 represented the worst Anglo-French crisis in decades, but France's buckling in the face of British demands foreshadowed improved relations as the 2 countries fix virtually resolving their overseas claims.

British policy in Southward Africa and German actions in the Far Due east contributed to dramatic policy shifts, which in the 1900s, aligned hitherto isolationist United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland beginning with Japan as an marry, and then with France and Russia in the looser Triple Entente. German efforts to break the Entente past challenging French hegemony in Morocco resulted in the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crunch of 1911, adding to tension and anti-German sentiment in the years preceding World State of war I. In the Pacific, conflicts between Frg, the Usa, and the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland contributed to the Starting time and 2nd Samoan Civil War.

Another crisis occurred in 1902–03, when there was a stand-off between Venezuela backed past Argentine republic, the Usa (see Drago Doctrine and Monroe Doctrine) and a coalition of European countries.

Motivation [edit]

Humanitarianism [edit]

One of the biggest motivations behind New Imperialism was the thought of humanitarianism and "civilizing" the "lower" course people in Africa and in other undeveloped places. This was a religious motive for many Christian missionaries, in an endeavour to salve the souls of the "uncivilized" people, and based on the idea that Christians and the people of the U.k. were morally superior. Most of the missionaries that supported imperialism did and so because they felt the only true organized religion was their own. Similarly, Roman Catholic missionaries opposed British missionaries considering the British missionaries were Protestant. At times, however, imperialism did aid the people of the colonies because the missionaries ended up stopping some of the slavery in some areas. Therefore, Europeans claimed that they were only there considering they wanted to protect the weaker tribal groups they conquered. The missionaries and other leaders suggested that they should end such practices equally cannibalism, kid marriage, and other "savage things". This humanitarian ideal was described in poems such as the White Man's Brunt and other literature. Frequently, the humanitarianism was sincere, simply with misguided choices. Although some imperialists were trying to be sincere with the notion of humanitarianism, at times their choices might not accept been all-time for the areas they were conquering and the natives living at that place.^[60]

Dutch Upstanding Policy [edit]

Dutch, Indo-Eurasian and Javanese professors of police at the opening of the Rechts Hogeschool in 1924.

The Dutch Ethical Policy was the ascendant reformist and liberal political character of colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies during the 20th century. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina appear that the Netherlands accustomed an upstanding responsibility for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This announcement was a precipitous dissimilarity with the former official doctrine that Republic of indonesia was mainly a wingewest (region for making turn a profit). It marked the start of modernistic evolution policy, implemented and practised by Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg, whereas other colonial powers normally talked of a civilizing mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonized peoples.

The Dutch Upstanding Policy (Dutch: Ethische Politiek ) emphasised improvement in material living conditions. The policy suffered, withal, from serious underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had largely ceased to exist by the onset of the Slap-up Depression in 1929.^[61] ^[62] It did however create an educated indigenous aristocracy able to clear and eventually establish independence from kingdom of the netherlands.

Theories [edit]

The "accumulation theory" adopted past Karl Kautsky, John A. Hobson and popularized by Vladimir Lenin centered on the accumulation of surplus capital during and after the Industrial Revolution: restricted opportunities at home, the argument goes, drove financial interests to seek more assisting investments in less-adult lands with lower labor costs, unexploited raw materials and trivial competition. Hobson'south assay fails to explain colonial expansion on the part of less industrialized nations with little surplus capital, such as Italy, or the great powers of the next century—the United States and Russia—which were in fact net borrowers of foreign capital. Likewise, military and bureaucratic costs of occupation frequently exceeded fiscal returns. In Africa (exclusive of what would go the Union of South Africa in 1909) the corporeality of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small before and subsequently the 1880s, and the companies involved in tropical African commerce exerted limited political influence.

The "Globe-Systems theory" approach of Immanuel Wallerstein sees imperialism as part of a general, gradual extension of capital letter investment from the "core" of the industrial countries to a less developed "periphery." Protectionism and formal empire were the major tools of "semi-peripheral," newly industrialized states, such as Germany, seeking to usurp Britain's position at the "core" of the global capitalist organisation.

Echoing Wallerstein's global perspective to an extent, imperial historian Bernard Porter views Britain's adoption of formal imperialism equally a symptom and an effect of her relative turn down in the earth, and not of force: "Stuck with outmoded physical plants and outmoded forms of concern, [Britain] now felt the less favorable effects of being the first to modernize."^{[ citation needed ]}

Timeline [edit]

The inclusion or exclusion of items from this listing or length of this list is disputed. Delight discuss this issue on the talk page.

1815: Congress of Vienna.
1816: Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental. Cosmos American Colonization Social club in Liberia (1816-1847).
1818: Argentine republic occupied Manila and California for a brusk time
1820: Argentina protectorate over Peru. Russia protectorate over Principality of Serbia.
1822: Argentine republic annexed Falkland Islands.
1830: France annexed People's democratic republic of algeria
1832: Ecuador annexed the Galápagos Islands.
1833: Britain annexed Falkland Islands.
1838: Britain annexed Pitcairn Islands.
1839: Britain conquered Aden from Sultanate of Lahej. Argentina annexed Salta and Jujuy
1841: U.k. established Colony of New Zealand.
1842: Britain received Hong Kong Island from Qing dynasty.
1843: Argentina protectorate over Gobierno del Cerrito
1848: USA annexed Texas and California.
1849: U.k. annexed Sikh Empire in Punjab.
1853: French republic annexed New Caledonia.
1855: Division of Kuril Islands and Saghalien betwixt Russian federation and Nihon.
1857: Great britain annexed Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Perim, French conquest of Algeria completed.
1857: Britain fights the Sepoy mutiny
1861: Mexico annexed Revillagigedo Islands in Oceania.
1862: Creation of French Cochinchina, British Honduras declared a colony.
1867: United states of america annexed Midway Atoll.
1867: Alaska Purchase.
1869: Nihon annexed Hokkaido.
1870: Russia annexed Novaya Zemlya. Argentina annexed Formosa. Brazil annexed Mato Grosso practise Sul.
1874: Britain established Colony of Republic of the fiji islands.
1875: Nippon annexed Bonin Islands.
1876: British protectorate over Socotra.
1877: Britain annexed Laccadive Islands.
1879: Japan annexed Ryukyu Islands.
1881: Britain annexed Rotuma.
1881: France annexed Tunisia.
1882: Uk conquered Egypt.
1884: Argentina completed Conquest of the Desert in Patagonia.
1885: Britain completed conquest of Burma/Myanmar, Belgian male monarch established Congo Free State, Germany established protectorate over Marshall islands.
1887: British protectorate over Republic of the maldives, French Somaliland created.
1888: Britain annexed Christmas Isle, British Somaliland created, Germany annexed Nauru, Chile annexed Easter Island.
1889: Creation of French Polynesia.
1890: British protectorate over Zanzibar, Italian Eritrea created.
1892: Britain annexed Banaba Island and Gilbert Islands.
1895: Qing dynasty ceded Taiwan and Penghu to Japan.
1897: France annexed Republic of madagascar.
1898: USA annexed Hawaii.
1898: USA annexed Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam and the Philippine islands.
1899: Division of Samoan Islands into German Samoa and American Samoa.
1900: Britain established protectorate over Tonga.
1903: Brazil annexed the Acre Region
1906–1913: Mexico annexed Clipperton Island.
1906: Britain and France established New Hebrides condominium.
1908: France annexed Comoro Islands.
1910: Nippon annexed Korean Empire.
1914: United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland annexed Cyprus.
1917: Argentine republic completed conquest of the Chaco
1926: Soviet Matrimony annexed Franz Josef Land and Wrangel Island.
1931: French republic annexed the Clipperton Isle
1933: Soviet Wedlock annexed Severnaya Zemlya.
1935–1937: Abyssinia Crisis and Second Italo-Ethiopian State of war: Italy conquered and annexed Federal democratic republic of ethiopia as part of Italian East Africa

Notes [edit]

^ According to economist Neantro Saavedra-Rivano: "Of all Latin American countries, Republic of chile has been the most explicit and consistent throughout its history in expressing its vocation every bit a Pacific nation and acting in accordance with this conception."^[53]

References [edit]

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^ Barros 1970, p. 213. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (aid)
^ Barros 1970, p. 214. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (help)
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^
Run into:
- Craig 2002, p. 62 harvnb mistake: no target: CITEREFCraig2002 (help)
- Delsing 2012, p. 56 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDelsing2012 (help)
- Saavedra-Rivano 1993, p. 193 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSaavedra-Rivano1993 (aid)
^ William Sater, Republic of chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict, 1990 past the University of Georgia Press, ISBN 0-8203-1249-v
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^ Ricklefs, One thousand.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300. London: Macmillan. p. 151. ISBN0-333-57690-X.

External links [edit]

J.A. Hobson'southward Imperialism: A Written report: A Centennial Retrospective by Professor Peter Cain
All-encompassing information on the British Empire
British Empire
The Empire Strikes Out: The "New Imperialism" and Its Fatal Flaws by Ivan Eland, director of defense policy studies at the Cato Institute. (an article comparing contemporary defense policy with those of New Imperialism (1870–1914)
The Martian Chronicles: History Backside the Chronicles New Imperialism 1870-1914
1- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Goods and Bads" (January 2007). Wayback Machine
Imperialism - Net History Sourcebooks - Fordham University
The New Imperialism (a class syllabus)
The 19th Century: The New Imperialism
2- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Appurtenances and Bads" (Jan 2007). Wayback Motorcar

westharoven.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Imperialism